Hundreds of thousands of Tigray mothers and children are dying of starvation in Ethiopia. This is an unprecedented massacre in all parts of the country at the behest of dictator Abiy Ahmed.
This is how my country became! too bad.!
በሃገራችን ኢትዮጵያ በመቶ ሺዎች የሚቆጠሩ የትግራይ እናቶችና ህፃናት በአስከፊ ሰው ሰራሽ ረሀብ እየረገፉ/እየሞቱ ነው፡፡ ይህ በሁሉም የሀገሪቱ ክፍሎች ውስጥ ታይቶ በማይታወቅ መልኩ እየተፈፀመ ያለው አስከፊ ሰቆቃና ረሃብ ግፍ በ አንባገነኑ አብይ አህመድ መራሹ አንባገነን መሪ ፍላጎት የተፈጸመ የዘርማጥፋት ዘመቻ ነው።
ሀገሬ እንዲህ ሆነች! ያሳዝናል።!
الأسباب الرئيسية 3 الطلاق:
نقية وبسيطة، والناس لا يعرفون كيفية التحدث مع بعضها البعض، وأنها تعرف حتى أقل عن الاستماع. أهم المحادثات الناس لديهم مع الزوج حتى الآن أنها وضعت بحيث القليل من الجهد في التعبير بحكمة مشاعرهم واستلقوا بصورة صريمة إلى زوجهم.
ومن الشائع أيضا أن يزداد للزواج في تجنب المحادثة التي يخشىونها سوف يسببهم أو ألم الزوج. إذا كنت لا يمكن التواصل، لا يمكنك حل المشاكل الزوجية. أسهل طريقة لبناء الثقة في علاقة الزوجية هي عن طريق مهارات الاتصال المفتوحة والصادقة. إذا كان الحديث والاستماع لا تصبح عادة لا يوجد أمل.
ويتضمن الاتصالات الحديث عن الأشياء السيئة، وجدونا لوضع خطة عمل لحل المشاكل الزوجية. ولا يمكن حل المشاكل الزوجية دون استعداد للاتصال. سوف ينتهي بك الأمر مع مشاكل لا تحل، زواج غير مدمج واستجواب ما إذا كان “هذا كل شيء” للزواج.
سوف يؤدي الفقراء أو أي اتصالات إلى النمو بعيدا، وسوف تؤثر أيضا أطفالك لأنك لا تقوم بإعطاء مثال جيد بالنسبة لهم. إذا لم تكن قادرا على التواصل حول الخير والسيء في زواجك، لا توجد وسيلة أن تشعر بالآمن تأمين تماما في الزواج.
وكما قال سام والتون: “توقعات عالية هي مفتاح كل شيء” إلا إذا كان بالطبع، ونحن نتحدث عن الزواج. التوقعات واللاخلال يمكن أن تذهب يد في الوقت الذي يتعلق بالتوقع ما إذا كان الزواج سوف تنتهي في الطلاق.
أن المرأة التي تشتري ثوب الزفاف مكلفة ربما يكون لها توقعات عالية جدا من الزواج. الرجال والنساء كلا من الكثير من الافتراضات عندما يتعلق الأمر الزواج وما يمكن توقعه من الزواج. وتستند هذه الافتراضات على العديد من المتغيرات والمشاكل التي تنشأ عندما النتيجة (الزواج) لا تلبي الافتراضات أو التوقعات.
نادرا ما تتوقع التوقعات الزوجية مع واقع الحياة التي مثل داخل الزواج. سأعطيك مثالا للتوقعات غير الملائم من زواجي. تدرس النساء من قبل المجتمع الذي يريد الرجال الجنس، أن الرجال يفكرون في الجنس وأن الجنس هو طابع ثانى فقط للرجال. وفقا للمجتمع، إذا كنت تتزوج رجل يمكنك أن تتوقع أن يرغب الرجل في الجنس معك.
تزوجت رجل يعرف قواعده الخاصة عندما جاء إلى الجنس. لم يفكر في الجنس، لم يكن طبيعة ثانية له، وأنه تزوج امرأة توقع زوجها لرغبة جنسيا يذهبون دون أن يقولوا أن هناك مشاكل في الزواج، والمشاكل التي تؤدي إلى الطلاق.
إذا كان قد اتصل بوجه قبل الزواج الافتراضي لجنسه لن يكون متزوجا له. ترى، وهذا هو المكان الذي يلعب فيه التوقعات والتوقعات في نتيجة الزواج. الاتصال قبل الزواج يمكن أن يستمر أي توقعات غير واقعية قد يكون قد يكون الزواج من الزواج.
في الختام، فمن المعتقد أن الطلاق ليس عن الكثافة أو عدم الاستقصاء. يمكن أن يكون الطلاق وتتجنبه من قبل أولئك الذين يرغبون في العمل بجد في الزواج، أولئك الذين يعرفون كيفية التواصل بشكل فعال وأولئك الذين توقعات واقعية.
تسعة أوقات من عشرة عما إذا كان الزوج أو الزجاجات غشوا أشبه نتيجة للمشاكل في الزواج. وكانت المشاكل التي يمكن أن تحل إذا كان العمل قد تم القيام به، كان هناك توقعات وتواقع واقعية. وينطبق الشيء نفسه على أولئك الذين يقولون إنهم “نمت” أو “، سقطت من الحب”. يجب أن تكون الزيت في العراق، إن لم يكنوا يزدادون الضحية لعدد لا يحصى من المشاكل. هل تعد زواجك؟
The 3 Major Causes of Divorce:
1. Laziness:
People don’t want to work at marriage. There is a misguided belief that marriage will make us happy. As if marriage is a separate entity, something outside ourselves that will survive and thrive with little input from a husband and wife.
Women plan huge weddings; throw bridal showers and go into marriage not having any idea what marriage is. Men find a woman to care for, adore and work to take care of only to find himself married to someone who only wants more and then a little more after that.
What happens when both become disillusioned with their marriage? They start looking outside themselves to define the problems in the marriage instead of looking at the situation and asking, “What can I do to make things better?”
Blame seems to be the path of least resistance. It is easier to blame a spouse or marriage in general than to take responsibility for how they are living inside their marriage and what possible changes they may need to make that will allow a marriage to flourish.
People are too lazy to do the self-exploration, learn better relationship skills and put the needed personal effort into a marriage. Bottom line, marriage takes hard work and if you aren’t committed to working hard a marriage won’t last.
2. Lack of Communication Skills:
Pure and simple, people don’t know how to talk to each other and they know even less about listening. The most important conversations people have are with a spouse yet they put so little effort into wisely expressing their feelings and openly listening to their spouse.
It is also common for spouses to want to avoid conversation they fear will cause them or their spouse pain. If you can’t communicate, you can’t solve marital problems.
The easiest way to build trust in a marital relationship is via open and honest communication skills. If TALKING and LISTENING don’t become a habit there is no hope.
Communication involves talking about the bad things and coming together to develop a plan of action for solving marital problems.
Marital problems can’t be solved without a willingness to communicate. You’ll end up with unresolved problems, an unfulfilling marriage and questioning whether “that’s all there is” to marriage.
Poor or no communication will lead to growing apart, it will also impact your children because you aren’t setting a good example for them. If you aren’t able to communicate about the good AND bad in your marriage, there is no way to feel fully secure in the marriage.
3. High Expectations:
As Sam Walton said, “High expectations are the key to everything” unless of course, we are talking about marriage. Expectations and laziness can go hand in hand when it comes to predicting whether a marriage will end in divorce.
That woman who buys the expensive wedding gown probably also has very high expectations of marriage. Men and women both make a lot of assumptions when it comes to marriage and what to expect from a marriage. These assumptions are based on many variables and problems arise when the outcome (marriage) doesn’t meet the assumptions or expectations.
Marital expectations rarely align with the realities of what life is like inside marriage. I’ll give you an example of unmet expectations from my own marriage.
Women are taught by society that men want sex, that men think about sex and that sex is just second nature to men. According to society, if you marry a man you can expect that man to want sex with you. I married a man who defined his own rules when it came to sex. He didn’t think about sex, it was not second nature to him and since he married a woman who expected her husband to desire her sexually it goes without saying that there were problems in the marriage, problems that lead to divorce.
If he had communicated to me before marriage his lack of desire for sex I would not have married him. You see, this is where communication and expectations play a role in the outcome of marriages. Communication before marriage can keep down any unrealistic expectations one may have of marriage. In conclusion, it is my belief that divorce is not about infidelity or unhappiness. Divorce can be and is avoided by those willing to work hard at marriage, those who know how to effectively communicate and those whose expectations are realistic. Nine times out of ten if a husband or wife cheats they cheat as a result of problems in the marriage. Problems that could have been solved if the work has been done, there had been communication and realistic expectations. The same goes for those who say they “grew apart” or, “fell out of love”. Marriages have to be nurtured, if not they fall victim to a myriad of problems.
The 3 Major Causes of Divorce:
1. Laziness:
People don’t want to work at marriage. There is a misguided belief that marriage will make us happy. As if marriage is a separate entity, something outside ourselves that will survive and thrive with little input from a husband and wife.
Women plan huge weddings; throw bridal showers and go into marriage not having any idea what marriage is. Men find a woman to care for, adore and work to take care of only to find himself married to someone who only wants more and then a little more after that.
What happens when both become disillusioned with their marriage? They start looking outside themselves to define the problems in the marriage instead of looking at the situation and asking, “What can I do to make things better?”
Blame seems to be the path of least resistance. It is easier to blame a spouse or marriage in general than to take responsibility for how they are living inside their marriage and what possible changes they may need to make that will allow a marriage to flourish.
People are too lazy to do the self-exploration, learn better relationship skills and put the needed personal effort into a marriage. Bottom line, marriage takes hard work and if you aren’t committed to working hard a marriage won’t last.
2. Lack of Communication Skills:
Pure and simple, people don’t know how to talk to each other and they know even less about listening. The most important conversations people have are with a spouse yet they put so little effort into wisely expressing their feelings and openly listening to their spouse.
It is also common for spouses to want to avoid conversation they fear will cause them or their spouse pain. If you can’t communicate, you can’t solve marital problems.
The easiest way to build trust in a marital relationship is via open and honest communication skills. If TALKING and LISTENING don’t become a habit there is no hope.
Communication involves talking about the bad things and coming together to develop a plan of action for solving marital problems.
Marital problems can’t be solved without a willingness to communicate. You’ll end up with unresolved problems, an unfulfilling marriage and questioning whether “that’s all there is” to marriage.
Poor or no communication will lead to growing apart, it will also impact your children because you aren’t setting a good example for them. If you aren’t able to communicate about the good AND bad in your marriage, there is no way to feel fully secure in the marriage.
3. High Expectations:
As Sam Walton said, “High expectations are the key to everything” unless of course, we are talking about marriage. Expectations and laziness can go hand in hand when it comes to predicting whether a marriage will end in divorce.
That woman who buys the expensive wedding gown probably also has very high expectations of marriage. Men and women both make a lot of assumptions when it comes to marriage and what to expect from a marriage. These assumptions are based on many variables and problems arise when the outcome (marriage) doesn’t meet the assumptions or expectations.
Marital expectations rarely align with the realities of what life is like inside marriage. I’ll give you an example of unmet expectations from my own marriage.
Women are taught by society that men want sex, that men think about sex and that sex is just second nature to men. According to society, if you marry a man you can expect that man to want sex with you. I married a man who defined his own rules when it came to sex. He didn’t think about sex, it was not second nature to him and since he married a woman who expected her husband to desire her sexually it goes without saying that there were problems in the marriage, problems that lead to divorce.
If he had communicated to me before marriage his lack of desire for sex I would not have married him. You see, this is where communication and expectations play a role in the outcome of marriages. Communication before marriage can keep down any unrealistic expectations one may have of marriage. In conclusion, it is my belief that divorce is not about infidelity or unhappiness. Divorce can be and is avoided by those willing to work hard at marriage, those who know how to effectively communicate and those whose expectations are realistic. Nine times out of ten if a husband or wife cheats they cheat as a result of problems in the marriage. Problems that could have been solved if the work has been done, there had been communication and realistic expectations. The same goes for those who say they “grew apart” or, “fell out of love”. Marriages have to be nurtured, if not they fall victim to a myriad of problems.
The solution is to face the bitter truth!
………………………………………….. ..
It is the historic responsibility of this generation to abandon the “generation” that claims to be dead if we do not burn the American flag. To do this, we must first evict all forces that violated Ethiopia’s sovereignty and ensure that we do not need any interference. Next you need to look inside and close your home in a polite manner. The world is solving the problem through dialogue, negotiation, and acceptance, not by making excuses and by fighting.
Failure to do so is a second death, especially for my generation!
Basic Rules of International Humanitarian Law in Armed Conflicts
The seven fundamental rules which are the basis of the Geneva Conventions and the Additional Protocols:
1 – Persons hors de combat and those who do not take a direct part in hostilities are entitled to respect for their lives and their moral and physical integrity. They shall in all circumstances be protected and treated humanely without any adverse distinction.
2 – It is forbidden to kill or injure an enemy who surrenders or who is hors de combat.
3 – The wounded and sick shall be collected and cared for by the party to the conflict which has them in its power. Protection also covers medical personnel, establishments, transports and equipment. The emblem of the red
cross or the red crescent is the sign of such protection and must be respected.
4 – Captured combatants and civilians under the authority of an adverse party are entitled to respect for their lives, dignity, personal rights and convictions. They shall be protected against all acts of violence and reprisals. They shall have the right to correspond with their families and to receive relief.
5 – Everyone shall be entitled to benefit from fundamental judicial guarantees. No one shall be held responsible for an act he has not committed. No one shall be subjected to physical or mental torture, corporal punishment or cruel or degrading treatment.
6 – Parties to a conflict and members of their armed forces do not have an unlimited choice of methods and means of warfare. It is prohibited to employ weapons or methods of warfare of a nature to cause unnecessary losses or excessive suffering.
7 – Parties to a conflict shall at all times distinguish between the civilian population and combatants in order to spare civilian population and property. Neither the civilian population as such nor civilian persons shall be the object of attack. Attacks shall be directed solely against military objectives.
የተዋሃዱ ግዛቶች ሴናት
ዋርጎ ኦ.ሲ 2610
29 ኤፕሪል 2021
አምባሳደር ጄፍሪ ፌልማን
አሜሪካ ለአፍሪካ ቀንድ ልዩ መልዕክተኛ
የዩናይትድ ስቴትስ የውጭ ጉዳይ ሚኒስቴር 2201 C St NW
ዋሽንግተን ዲሲ 20520
አምባሳደር ፌልማን
ለአፍሪካ ቀንድ የአሜሪካ የስፔስ መልዕክተኛ ሆነው በመሾምዎ እንኳን ደስ አላችሁ ፡፡ ብዙ ውስብስብ ችግሮች ያጋጠሙት ወሳኝ ወሳኝ ክልል ነው ፡፡ የእርስዎ ተሞክሮ እና አመራር ዩናይትድ ስቴትስ በስትራቴጂክ ፣ በተቀናጀ ሁኔታ ምላሽ እንድትሰጥ ያስችላታል ፡፡
ወደ አከባቢው ለመጓዝ ሲዘጋጁ ግምት ውስጥ ያስገባሉ ብለን የምንጠብቃቸውን በኢትዮጵያ እየተከናወኑ ባሉና እርስ በርሳቸው በሚተሳሰሩ ቀውሶች ላይ ያለንን አመለካከት ለማካፈል እንፅፋለን ፡፡ ከኖቬምበር 2020 ጀምሮ በትግራይ ክልል በተፈጠረው ግጭት በሰብአዊ እና በሰብአዊ መብቶች ማጎሳቆሎች ሁላችንም የተረበሸን ነን ፣ በግምት ወደ 1.7 ሚሊዮን ከሚሆኑት የአገር ውስጥ ተፈናቃዮች በተጨማሪ 62,000 ሰዎች እንደ መጠለያ ለመሸሽ ተገደዋል ፣ እና 4.5 ሚሊዮን አስቸኳይ ምግብ ያስፈልጋቸዋል በጾታ እና በጾታ ላይ የተመሠረተ ጥቃት በስፋት ጥቅም ላይ መዋልን ጨምሮ በፀጥታ ኃይሎች በሰላማዊ ዜጎች ላይ በፈጸሙት ከባድ የሰብአዊ መብት ጥሰቶች እርዳታ በርካታ ተዓማኒ ሪፖርቶች ተገኝተዋል ፡፡ ጠቅላይ ሚኒስትር ዓብይ አህመድ (ዶ / ር) የኤርትራ እና የክልል ያልሆኑ ወታደሮች ከትግራይ እንዲወጡ ደህንነቱ ያልተጠበቀ የሰብአዊ አቅርቦትን ወደ ክልሉ ለማቅረብ የገቡትን ቃል እንዲፈጽሙ ሁሉንም የዲፕሎማቲክ መሳሪያዎች እንዲጠቀሙ እናበረታታዎታለን ፡፡ በሰብአዊ መብት ጥሰቶች ላይ ገለልተኛ ምርመራዎችን ለመፍቀድ እና አጥቂዎችን ተጠያቂ ለማድረግ ፡፡ እነዚህ አስቸኳይ እርምጃዎች ከጊዜ ወደ ጊዜ እየጨመረ የመጣውን የርሃብ አደጋ ለመግታት እና በመላው አገሪቱ በሲቪል ዜጎች ላይ የሚደርሰውን የሰብዓዊ መብት ጥሰትን ለማስቆም ወሳኝ ናቸው ፡፡
በተመሳሳይ ጊዜ እኛ በሌሎች የኢትዮጵያ አካባቢዎች የሚከሰቱ የጎሳ ጥቃቶች መበራከትንም በተመለከተ በጣም ተቀናጅተናል ፡፡ ለካምፕል እ.ኤ.አ. በታህሳስ 2020 በቤኒሻንጉል-ግሩሙዝ ክልል በምስራቅ 200 አማራ ፣ ኦሮሞ ፣ ሺናሳ ፣ አገው እና ሌሎች አናሳ አናሳዎች በአጥቂዎች ተገደሉ ፡፡ ተመሳሳይ ጥቃቶች በኦሮምያ ክልል ውስጥ ከተነሱበት ጊዜ አንስቶም እንዲሁ ፡፡ it ts cstimatcd ነው
ቤሽር ኤም (2021, ኤፕሪል 15). የተባበሩት መንግስታት በኤክስሂያ ትግራዋይ ውስጥ ረሃብ እና አስገድዶ መድፈር እየጨመረ መጥቷል ፡፡ የአሜሪካ አይጥ ተሰርvedል ከ
የተባበሩት መንግስታት ድርጅት የሰብአዊ እርዳታ ማስተባበር. (2021. ኤፕሪል 27) ፣ ኢትዮጵያ-ታይጋይ ክልል
ሂሚኒታንሳን Updatc. የተወሰደ ትሮም ሊቲንኮርቲ.ኑናታ.ኢግ ncuntcthaopia
ክላርክ ፣ ኤች እና ኪቴ ፣ አር (2021. ኤፕሪል 27) ፡፡ በቲጅጊ ፣ ወሲባዊ ጥቃት l የጦር መሣሪያ ሆነ ፡፡ የፋርኪንግ ፖሊሲ.
ዳግም የተሰጠው ትሮም bttpsorsignpolicy.soma0REDHAZmeluray-exual-slikncelas-becencH -0ENar
የታጠቀ ቡድን በምዕራብ ምዕራብ ኢትዮጵያ አውራጃን ተቆጣጠረ – የመብቶች ኮሚሽን (202l ፣ ኤፕሪል 23) ሮይተርስ ፡፡ የተወሰደ trom ittpsAWISMcrs.com.waratoca.cbiopta-tightassonnssR-S-arncd-team-lasetakcn-controlscounty
አምነስቲ ኢንቴማዊ (እ.ኤ.አ. 2020 ፣ ኖቬምበር 2) ፡፡ የታጠቁ ቡድን ጎሳ አማራዎችን በመግደል መንደሮች ላይ ጥቃት ሰነዘረባቸው ፣ ቤቶችን አጥፍቷል ተሰርስሮ የተወሰደ tID htpsww.IDcsty.onun.latcs.ncSO0LL12cthopsasoxcEM-chnksnhata: killkd-in attackoon: Slagcetraclgloa
United States ሴኔት የመንግሥት ተዋንያን በመላ አገሪቱ እና በእውነተኛ ዲሞክራሲያዊ ምርጫዎች መሠረት ለመጣል ፡፡
በረጅም ጊዜ ውስጥ በኦሮሚያ ፣ በአማራ ፣ በቤኒሻንጉል-ጉሙዝ ፣ በትግራይና በሌሎችም ክልሎች የተፈጸሙ የሰብአዊ ንቅናቄዎች በደሎችን በተመለከተ ገለልተኛ ምርመራን እንደሚደግፉ ተስፋ እናደርጋለን ፡፡ እንዲሁም ለኢትዮጵያ የተረጋጋ ፣ የተስማማ እና ሁሉን አቀፍ አካታችነት ለመቅረጽ ሁሉንም የአገሪቱን ብሄረሰቦች እና የፖለቲካ ቡድኖችን የሚያሰባስብ ብሔራዊ ውይይት ሂደት እንዲያስተዋውቁ እናበረታታዎታለን ፡፡
ኢትዮጵያ ለረዥም ጊዜ ለአሜሪካ አስፈላጊ አጋር ሆና በሰፊ ምስራቅ አፍሪካ ቀጠና ውስጥ ጉልህ ሚና ትጫወታለች ፡፡ ዛሬ በኢትዮጵያ የሚከሰቱ ዋና ዋና ተግዳሮቶችን መፍታት ለኢትዮጵያ ፣ ለአሜሪካ እና ለዓለም አቀፉ ማህበረሰብ ፍላጎት ነው ፡፡
እንደ ሪያልታን የኢትዮ Ethiopiaያ ሬናስንስን አሠራር በመሳሰሉ በኢትዮጵያ እና በጎረቤቶ between መካከል እየጨመረ ላለው ውጥረት ነጥቦች በሰላማዊ ፣ በድርድር መፍትሄዎችን ማበረታታት አለብን ፡፡
ግድብ ከእነዚህ ተፈታታኝ ሁኔታዎች ውስጥ አንዳቸውም በተናጥል ሊስተናገዱ አይችሉም ፣ የእነዚህን ቀውሶች እርስ በእርስ የመተያየት ተፈጥሮን ወደኋላ የምንመልስ አጠቃላይ ስትራቴጂዎችን እንቀጥላለን ፡፡ እነዚያን ስትራቴጂዎች እንዲያዳብሩ እና እንዲያስፈጽሙ ለመርዳት ዝግጁ ነን ፣ እናም የሰውን ልጅ ንፅህናን ፣ ዲሞክራሲን እና ብልጽግናን በኢትዮ andያ እና በመላው አፍሪካ ሆርሞን ለማራመድ ከእርስዎ ጋር አብሮ ለመስራት በጉጉት እንጠብቃለን ፡፡
ከሠላምታ ጋር
ቤንጃንት ኤል ካርዲን
የዩናይትድ ስቴትስ ሴናተር
ቲም ካይንክ
የዩናይትድ ስቴትስ ሴናተር
ጃኪ ሮዜ
የዩናይትድ ስቴትስ ሴናተር
ኮሪ ኤ ቡከር
የዩናይትድ ስቴትስ ሴናተር
ኤድዋርድ J. Markčy
የዩናይትድ ስቴትስ ሴናተር
የጋብቻ ውጤት
አንቀጽ ፵ ሁሉም የጋብቻ አፈፃፀም ሥርዓቶች ተመሳሳይ ውጤት ያላቸው ስለመሆኑ
፩. በማናቸውም ዓይነት የጋብቻ አፈፃፀም ሥርዓት መሠረት የተፈፀመ ጋብቻ ተመሳሳይ ሕጋዊ ውጤት ይኖረዋል፡፡
፪. በዚህ ረገድ ጋብቻ በክብር መዝገብ ሹም ፊት ወይም በሃይማኖት ወይም በባህል በታዘዙት ሥርዓቶች መሠረት የተፈፀመም ቢሆን ልዩነት አይደረግበትም፡፡
አንቀጽ ፵፩ የሩካቤ ሥጋ ግንኙነት መፈፀም
የሩካቤ ሥጋ ግንኙነት በዕውነት መፈፀሙ ወይም ተፈጽሟል ተብሎ መገመቱ፣ ጋብቻው ለሚያስከትለው ውጤት አስፈላጊ አይደለም፡፡
አንቀጽ ፵፪ (፩) የጋብቻ ውል
፩. ተጋቢዎቹ ጋብቻቸው ንብረታቸውን በተመለከተ ስለሚያስከትለው ውጤት ጋብቻቸውን ከመፈፀማቸው በፊት ወይም እጅግ ቢዘገይ ጋብቻቸው በሚፈፀምበት ዕለት በውል መወሰን ይችላሉ፡፡
፪. እንዲሁም ግላዊ ግንኙነታቸውን በሚመለከት የሚኖሯቸውን መብቶችና ግዴታዎች በዚህ ውል መወሰን ይችላሉ፡፡
፫. በዚህ አንቀጽ ንዑስ አንቀጽ (፩) እና (፪) መሠረት ተጋቢዎቹ የሚያደርጓቸው ውሎች አስገዳጅ የሕግ ድንጋጌዎችን የሚቃረኑ ሊሆኑ አይችሉም፡፡
አንቀጽ ፵፫ (፪) የተጋቢዎቹ ችሎታ ማጣት
፩. በፍርድ የተከለከለ ሰው የሚያደርገውን የጋብቻ ውል እርሱ ራሱ ካልፈፀመውና ፍርድ ቤት ካላፀደቀው በስተቀር ውጤት አይኖረውም፡፡
፪. በሕግ የተከለከለ ሰው፣ የጋብቻ ውል መዋዋልን በተመለከተ ችሎታ እንዳለው ይቆጠራል፡፡
አንቀጽ ፵፬ (፫) የውሉ ፎርም
የጋብቻ ውል በጽሑፍ ካልተደረገና አራት ምስክሮች፣ ሁለት በባል ወገን፣ ሁለት በሚስት ወገን፣ የፈረሙበት ካልሆነ በስተቀር ውጤት አይኖረውም፡፡
አንቀጽ ፵፭ (፬) የውሉ ሰነድ ስለሚቀመጥበት ቦታ
፩. የጋብቻ ውሉ አንድ ቅጅ በፍርድ ቤት ወይም በክብር መዝገብ ሹም ዘንድ ይቀመጣል፡፡
፪. ተጋቢዎች ወይም ከተጋቢዎች አንዱ ለማየት በፈለጉ ጊዜ እንዲሁም በፍርድ ቤት ወይም ከተጋቢዎቹ በአንዱ የተፈቀደላቸው ሰዎች የውሉን ሰነድ ለማየት ይችላሉ፡፡
አንቀጽ ፵፮ (፭) ውል ለመዋዋል ስላለው የነፃነት ወሰን
፩. ተጋቢዎች በጋብቻቸው ውል ውስጥ በሌሎች ሦስተኛ ወገኖች ላይ ግዴታን የሚያስከትሉ ስምምነቶችን ማድረግ አይችሉም፡፡
፪. እንዲሁም ተጋቢዎቹ ባሕልን ወይም ሃይማኖትን ወይም የአንድን አገር ሕግ በጥቅሉ በመጥቀስ ብቻ ተስማምተናል በማለት የሚያደርጉት የጋብቻ ውል ውጤት አይኖረውም፡፡
አንቀጽ ፵፯ (፮) የጋብቻ ውልን ስለማሻሻል
፩. የጋብቻ ውል እንዲሻሻል የቤተሰቡ ጥቅም የሚጠይቅ ሲሆንና ተጋቢዎቹ ሲስማሙ ውሉን በማሻሻል ፍርድ ቤት እንዲፀድቅላቸው መጠየቅ ይችላሉ፡፡
፪. ፍርድ ቤት በተጋቢዎቹ ተሻሽሎ የቀረበው የጋብቻ ውል የቤተሰቡን ጥቅም የማይጎዳ መሆኑን ሲያረጋግጥ የተሻሻለውን ውል ተቀብሎ ያፀድቃል፡፡
፫. በዚህ አንቀጽ ንዑስ አንቀጽ (፪) በተመለከተው ሁኔታ ፍርድ ቤቱ ውሉን ያፀደቀው እንደሆነ፣ የተሻሻለው ውል በፍርድ ቤት ወይም በክብር መዝገብ ሹም ዘንድ ይቀመጣል፡፡
አንቀጽ ፵፰ (፯) የሕግ ተፈፃሚነት
የጋብቻ ውል በሌለ ጊዜ ወይም የጋብቻ ውል ቢኖርም በሕግ ሳይፀና የቀረ እንደሆነ፣ ከዚህ ቀጥሎ የተመለከቱት ድንጋጌዎች ተፈፃሚ ይሆናሉ፡፡
Police Investigation
Art. 22 Principle.
(1) Whenever the police know or suspect that an offence has been committed, they shall proceed to investigate in accordance with the provisions of this Chapter.
(2) Investigation into offences committed by young persons shall be carried out in accordance with instructions given by the court under Art. 172 (2) .
Art. 23. __ Duty of police to investigate.
Investigating police officers shall carry out their duties under this Chapter not withstanding that they are of opinion that the accusation, complaint or information they may have received is open to doubt.
Art. 24. __ recording of statement.
After having recorded an accusation or complaint in the manner laid down in Art. 14, the investigating police officer shall elicit from the person making the accusation or complaint all relevant facts and dates, the name or description of the offender, the names and addresses of principal witnesses and all other evidence which may be available and shall record them.
Art.25.___ Summoning of accused or suspected person.
Where the investigating police officer has reason to believe that a person has committed an offence, he may be written summons require such person to appear before him.
Art 26. __ Arrest
(1) Where the accused or the suspect has not been arrested and the offence is such as to justify arrest or where the person summoned under Art. 25 fails to appear, the investigating police officer shall take such steps as are necessary to effect his arrest.
(2) Where the arrest cannot be made without warrant, the investigating police officer shall apply to the court for a warrant of arrest in accordance with the provisions of Art. 53.
Art. 27.__ Interrogation.
(1) Any person summoned under Art. 25 or arrested under Art. 26,50 or 51 shall, after his identity and address have been established. Be asked to answer the accusation or complaint made against him.
(2) He shall not be compelled to answer and shall be informed that he has the right not to answer and that any statement he may make may be used in evidence.
(3) Any statement which may be made shall be recorded.
(4) Where the arrested person is unable properly to understand the language in which his answers are to be recorded, he shall be supplied with a competent interpreter, who shall certify the correctness of all questions and answers.
Art. 28. __ Release on bond.
(1) Where the offence committed or complained of is not punishable with rigorous imprisonment as a sole or alternative punishment; or where it is doubtful that an offence has been committed or that the summoned or arrested person has committed the offence complained of, the investigating police officer may in his discretion release such person on his executing a bond with or without sureties that he will appear at such place, on such day and at such time as may be fixed by the police.
(2) Where the accused is not released on bond under this article, he may apply to the court to be released on bail in accordance with the provisions of Art. 64.
Art. 29__ Procedure after arrest
(1) Where the accused has been arrested by the police or a private person and handed over to the police (Art. 58) the police shall bring him before the nearest court within forty eight hours of his arrest or so soon thereafter as local circumstances and communications permit. The time taken in the journey to the court shall not be included.
(2) The court before which the accused is brought may make any order it thinks fit in accordance with the provisions of Art. 59.
Art. 30__ Examination of witnesses by the police.
(1) The investigating police officer may, where necessary, summon and examine any person likely to give information on any matter relating to the offence or the offender.
(2) Any person so examined shall be bound to answer truthfully all questions put to him. He may refuse to answer any question the answer to which would have a tendency to expose him to a criminal charge.
(3) Any statement which may be made shall be recorded.
Art. 31.___ No inducement to be offered.
(1) No police officer or person in authority shall offer or use or make or cause to be offered, made or used any inducement, threat, promise or any other improper method to any person examined by the police.
(2) No police officer or other person shall prevent or discourage by whatever means any person from making or from requiring to be recorded in the course of the police investigation any statement relating to such investigation which he may be disposed to make of his own free will.
Art. 32. __ Searches and seizures.
Any investigation police officer or member of the police may make searches or seizures in accordance with the provisions which follow;
(1) No arrested person shall be searched except where it is reasonably suspected that he has about his person any articles which may be material as evidence in respect of the offence with which he is accused or in suspected to have committed. A search shall be made by a person of the same sex as the arrested person.
(2) No premises may be searched unless the police officer or member of the police is in possession of a search warrant in the form prescribed in the third schedule to this code except where;
(a) An offender is followed in hot pursuit and enters premises or disposes of articles the subject matter of an offence in premises;
(b) Information is given to an investigating police officer or member of the police that there is reasonable cause for suspecting that articles which may be material as evidence in respect of an offence in respect of which an accusation or complaint had been made under art. Of this Code and the offence is punishable with more than three years imprisonment, are concealed or lodged in any place and he has good grounds for believing that by reason of the delay in obtaining a search warrant such articles are likely to be removed.
Art. 33.__ Issue of search warrant.
(1) A search warrant may be issued by any court. No search warrant shall be issued unless the court is satisfied that the purposes of justice or of any inquiry, trial or other proceedings under this code will be served by the issue of such warrant.
(2) Every search warrant issued shall specify the property to be searched for and seized and no investigating police officer or member of the police may seize any property other than that specified in such warrant.
(3) On seizing any property such investigating police officer or member of the police shall make a list of the property seized and where possible shall have the list checked and signed by an independent person. Any property seized which is required for the trial shall be preserved in a safe place until handed over to the court as an exhibit. Any property not so required may be returned to the person from whom it was taken and a receipt shall be taken
(4) In effecting a search the investigating police officer or member of the police may use such force as is necessary and may where access to premises is denied use reasonable force to affect entry.
(5) Unless otherwise expressly ordered by the court, searches shall be carried out only between the hours of 6 A.M. and 6 P.M.
Art. 34.__ Physical examination
(1) Notwithstanding the provisions of Art. 20 Civil Code where an investigating police officer considers it necessary, having regard to the offence with which the accused is charged, that a physical examination of the accused should be made, he may require a registered medical practitioner to make such examination and require him to record in writing the results of such examination. Examination under this Article shall include the taking of a blood test.
(2) An investigating police officer may, with the agreement of the victim of an offence or, where he is incapable with the consent of the parent or guardian, require a registered medical practitioner to make such physical examination as the offence being inquired into would appear to require. He shall require the registered medical practitioner to record in writing the results of such examination.
Art.35. Power of court to record statements and confessions
(1) Any court may record any statement or confession made to it at any time before the opening of a preliminary inquiry or trial.
(2) No court shall record any such statement or confession unless, upon questioning the person making it, it ascertains that such person voluntarily makes such statement or confession. A note to this effect shall be made on the record.
(3) Such statement or confession shall be recorded in writing and in full by the court and shall thereafter be read over to the person making the statement or confession, which shall sign and date it. The statement shall then be signed by the president of the court.
(4) A copy of the record shall then be sent to the court before which the case is to be inquired into or tried, and to the public prosecutor.
Art. 36 __ Diary of investigation
(1) Every police officer making a police investigation under this Chapter shall day by day enter his proceedings in the investigation in a diary setting forth:
(a) The day on which he started and closed his investigation and
(b) All the steps taken in the course of the investigation; and
(c) The circumstances which the investigation disclosed; and
(d) All the means of evidence which may have been collected.
(2) He shall enter in the diary any order which he may have received from a court or the public prosecutor in the course of the investigation.
Art. 37 Repot of police investigation.
(1) Every police investigation under this Chapter shall be completed without unnecessary delay.
(2) As soon as the investigation is completed, the investigation police officer shall forward to the public prosecutor a report setting forth;
(a) The name of the parties; and
(b) The nature of the information and the names of all persons who appear to be acquainted with the circumstances of the case; and
(c) All the means of evidence which have been collected.
(3) The report shall specify all the steps which may have been taken with a view to preservation or otherwise.
Art. 38. – Action by public prosecutor on receiving report.
On receiving the report under Art. 37 the public prosecutor may:
A) Prosecute the accused on a charge drawn up by him under Art.109-122; or
B) Order that a preliminary inquiry be held under Art.80-93;or
C) Order further investigations; or
D) Refuse to institute proceedings under Art. 42
Art. 39. Closure of police investigation file
(1) The public prosecutor shall close the police investigation file where the accused:
(a) Has died ;or
(b) Is under nine years of age or
(c) Cannot be prosecuted under any special law or under public international law (diplomatic immunity)
(2) The provisions of art. 43-45 shall not apply where the case file is closed under this article.
(3) On closing the case file. The public prosecutor shall send a copy of his decision to the Advocate General. The private complainant, if any and the investigating police officer.
Chapter 3. Institution of Proceedings
Art. 40 Duty to institute proceedings
(1) Subject to the provisions of Art. 42 the public prosecutor shall institute proceedings accordance with the provisions of this Chapter whenever he is of opinion that there are sufficient grounds for prosecution the accused.
(2) The public prosecutor shall not institute proceedings against a young person unless instructed so to do by the court under Art. 172.
Art. 41 Doubtful cases.
Where it is not clear whether proceedings should be instituted, the public prosecutor shall refer the matter for instructions to the Advocate General.
Art 42. Cases where proceedings shall not be instituted
(1) No proceedings shall be instituted where:
(a) The public prosecutor is of opinion that there is not sufficient evidence to justify a conviction; or
(b) There is no possibility of finding the accused and the case is one which may not be tried in his absence; or
(c) The prosecution is barred by limitation or the offence is made the subject of a pardon or amnesty: or
(d) The public prosecutor is instructed not to institute proceedings in the public interest by the Minister by order under his hand.
(2) On no other grounds may the public prosecutor refuse to institute proceedings.
(3) The public prosecutor shall institute proceedings in cases affecting the Government when so instructed by the Minister.
Art. 44 Effect of refusal.
(1) Where the public prosecutor refuses to institute proceedings under Art. 42 (1)(a) in relation to an offence punishable on complaint only, he shall authorize in writing the appropriate person mentioned in Art.47 to conduct a private prosecution. A copy of such authorization shall be sent to the court having jurisdiction.
(2) Where the public prosecutor refuses to institute proceedings under Art. 42 (1) (a) in relation to an offence which is not punishable on complaint only, the appropriate person mentioned in art, 47 may, within thirty days from having received the decision of the public prosecutor apply for an order that the public prosecutor institute proceedings.
Art. 45 form of and decision an application
(1) An application under Art. 44(2) shall be made to the court to which an appeal lies from decisions of the court which would have had jurisdiction, had proceedings been instituted.
(2) The court shall, after considering the refusal of the public prosecutor to institute proceedings under Art.42(1) and the reasons therefor either confirm the decision of the public prosecutor or order him to institute proceedings ;
Art. 46 Liability of private prosecutor.
The private prosecutor authorized to conduct a private prosecution under art. 44(1) shall conduct the private prosecution at his peril and at his own expense.
Art. 47 Persons entitled to conduct private prosecutions.
No person other than:
(a) The injured party or his legal representative; or
(b) The husband or wife on behalf of the spouse; or
(c) The legal representative of an incapable person; or
(d) The attorney or a body corporate;
May conduct a private prosecution.
Art. 48 Stay of proceedings in private prosecution pending institution of proceedings by public prosecutor.
Where the evidence in a private prosecution discloses that a more serious offence has resulted than has been charged in a private prosecution, the public prosecutor may apply to the court to stay the proceedings pending the institution of fresh proceedings by the public prosecutor and the court shall thereon stay the proceedings
Steps to be taken pending Investigation
– Arrest Section
1. – Arrest without warrant
Art. 49 Principle.
Save as is otherwise expressly provided, no person may be arrested unless a warrant is issued and no person may be detained in custody except on an order by the court. An arrest without warrant may only be made on the conditions laid down in this section.
Art. 50 Arrest without warrant in flagrant cases.
Any private person or member of the police may arrest without warrant a person who has committed a flagrant offence as defined in Art. 19 and 20 of this Code, where the offence is punishable with simple imprisonment for not less than three months.
Art. 51 Arrest without warrant by the police
(1) Any member of the police may arrest without warrant any person:
(a) Whom he reasonably suspects of having committed or being about to commit an offence punishable with imprisonment for not less than one year;
(b) Who is in the act of committing a breach of the peace;
(c) Who obstructs a member of the police while in the execution of his duties or who has escaped or attempted to escape from lawful custody;
(d) Who has evaded or is reasonably suspected of having evaded police supervision;
(e) Who is reasonably suspected of being a deserter from the armed forces or the police forces;
(f) Who has in his possession without lawful excuse housebreaking implements or weapons;
(g) Who has in his possession without lawful excuse anything which may reasonably be suspected of being stolen or otherwise obtained by the commission of an offence;
(h) Who may reasonably be suspected of being a dangerous vagrant within the meaning of Art. 471 Penal Code.
(2) Nothing in this Article shall affect the power of other government officers to make an arrest without warrant under special provisions of other laws.
– Variation of Orders Contained in Sentences Art.216. – Principle.
Police Investigation
Art. 22 Principle.
(1) Whenever the police know or suspect that an offence has been committed, they shall proceed to investigate in accordance with the provisions of this Chapter.
(2) Investigation into offences committed by young persons shall be carried out in accordance with instructions given by the court under Art. 172 (2) .
Art. 23. __ Duty of police to investigate.
Investigating police officers shall carry out their duties under this Chapter not withstanding that they are of opinion that the accusation, complaint or information they may have received is open to doubt.
Art. 24. __ recording of statement.
After having recorded an accusation or complaint in the manner laid down in Art. 14, the investigating police officer shall elicit from the person making the accusation or complaint all relevant facts and dates, the name or description of the offender, the names and addresses of principal witnesses and all other evidence which may be available and shall record them.
Art.25.___ Summoning of accused or suspected person.
Where the investigating police officer has reason to believe that a person has committed an offence, he may be written summons require such person to appear before him.
Art 26. __ Arrest
(1) Where the accused or the suspect has not been arrested and the offence is such as to justify arrest or where the person summoned under Art. 25 fails to appear, the investigating police officer shall take such steps as are necessary to effect his arrest.
(2) Where the arrest cannot be made without warrant, the investigating police officer shall apply to the court for a warrant of arrest in accordance with the provisions of Art. 53.
Art. 27.__ Interrogation.
(1) Any person summoned under Art. 25 or arrested under Art. 26,50 or 51 shall, after his identity and address have been established. Be asked to answer the accusation or complaint made against him.
(2) He shall not be compelled to answer and shall be informed that he has the right not to answer and that any statement he may make may be used in evidence.
(3) Any statement which may be made shall be recorded.
(4) Where the arrested person is unable properly to understand the language in which his answers are to be recorded, he shall be supplied with a competent interpreter, who shall certify the correctness of all questions and answers.
Art. 28. __ Release on bond.
(1) Where the offence committed or complained of is not punishable with rigorous imprisonment as a sole or alternative punishment; or where it is doubtful that an offence has been committed or that the summoned or arrested person has committed the offence complained of, the investigating police officer may in his discretion release such person on his executing a bond with or without sureties that he will appear at such place, on such day and at such time as may be fixed by the police.
(2) Where the accused is not released on bond under this article, he may apply to the court to be released on bail in accordance with the provisions of Art. 64.
Art. 29__ Procedure after arrest
(1) Where the accused has been arrested by the police or a private person and handed over to the police (Art. 58) the police shall bring him before the nearest court within forty eight hours of his arrest or so soon thereafter as local circumstances and communications permit. The time taken in the journey to the court shall not be included.
(2) The court before which the accused is brought may make any order it thinks fit in accordance with the provisions of Art. 59.
Art. 30__ Examination of witnesses by the police.
(1) The investigating police officer may, where necessary, summon and examine any person likely to give information on any matter relating to the offence or the offender.
(2) Any person so examined shall be bound to answer truthfully all questions put to him. He may refuse to answer any question the answer to which would have a tendency to expose him to a criminal charge.
(3) Any statement which may be made shall be recorded.
Art. 31.___ No inducement to be offered.
(1) No police officer or person in authority shall offer or use or make or cause to be offered, made or used any inducement, threat, promise or any other improper method to any person examined by the police.
(2) No police officer or other person shall prevent or discourage by whatever means any person from making or from requiring to be recorded in the course of the police investigation any statement relating to such investigation which he may be disposed to make of his own free will.
Art. 32. __ Searches and seizures.
Any investigation police officer or member of the police may make searches or seizures in accordance with the provisions which follow;
(1) No arrested person shall be searched except where it is reasonably suspected that he has about his person any articles which may be material as evidence in respect of the offence with which he is accused or in suspected to have committed. A search shall be made by a person of the same sex as the arrested person.
(2) No premises may be searched unless the police officer or member of the police is in possession of a search warrant in the form prescribed in the third schedule to this code except where;
(a) An offender is followed in hot pursuit and enters premises or disposes of articles the subject matter of an offence in premises;
(b) Information is given to an investigating police officer or member of the police that there is reasonable cause for suspecting that articles which may be material as evidence in respect of an offence in respect of which an accusation or complaint had been made under art. Of this Code and the offence is punishable with more than three years imprisonment, are concealed or lodged in any place and he has good grounds for believing that by reason of the delay in obtaining a search warrant such articles are likely to be removed.
Art. 33.__ Issue of search warrant.
(1) A search warrant may be issued by any court. No search warrant shall be issued unless the court is satisfied that the purposes of justice or of any inquiry, trial or other proceedings under this code will be served by the issue of such warrant.
(2) Every search warrant issued shall specify the property to be searched for and seized and no investigating police officer or member of the police may seize any property other than that specified in such warrant.
(3) On seizing any property such investigating police officer or member of the police shall make a list of the property seized and where possible shall have the list checked and signed by an independent person. Any property seized which is required for the trial shall be preserved in a safe place until handed over to the court as an exhibit. Any property not so required may be returned to the person from whom it was taken and a receipt shall be taken
(4) In effecting a search the investigating police officer or member of the police may use such force as is necessary and may where access to premises is denied use reasonable force to affect entry.
(5) Unless otherwise expressly ordered by the court, searches shall be carried out only between the hours of 6 A.M. and 6 P.M.
Art. 34.__ Physical examination
(1) Notwithstanding the provisions of Art. 20 Civil Code where an investigating police officer considers it necessary, having regard to the offence with which the accused is charged, that a physical examination of the accused should be made, he may require a registered medical practitioner to make such examination and require him to record in writing the results of such examination. Examination under this Article shall include the taking of a blood test.
(2) An investigating police officer may, with the agreement of the victim of an offence or, where he is incapable with the consent of the parent or guardian, require a registered medical practitioner to make such physical examination as the offence being inquired into would appear to require. He shall require the registered medical practitioner to record in writing the results of such examination.
Art.35. Power of court to record statements and confessions
(1) Any court may record any statement or confession made to it at any time before the opening of a preliminary inquiry or trial.
(2) No court shall record any such statement or confession unless, upon questioning the person making it, it ascertains that such person voluntarily makes such statement or confession. A note to this effect shall be made on the record.
(3) Such statement or confession shall be recorded in writing and in full by the court and shall thereafter be read over to the person making the statement or confession, which shall sign and date it. The statement shall then be signed by the president of the court.
(4) A copy of the record shall then be sent to the court before which the case is to be inquired into or tried, and to the public prosecutor.
Art. 36 __ Diary of investigation
(1) Every police officer making a police investigation under this Chapter shall day by day enter his proceedings in the investigation in a diary setting forth:
(a) The day on which he started and closed his investigation and
(b) All the steps taken in the course of the investigation; and
(c) The circumstances which the investigation disclosed; and
(d) All the means of evidence which may have been collected.
(2) He shall enter in the diary any order which he may have received from a court or the public prosecutor in the course of the investigation.
Art. 37 Repot of police investigation.
(1) Every police investigation under this Chapter shall be completed without unnecessary delay.
(2) As soon as the investigation is completed, the investigation police officer shall forward to the public prosecutor a report setting forth;
(a) The name of the parties; and
(b) The nature of the information and the names of all persons who appear to be acquainted with the circumstances of the case; and
(c) All the means of evidence which have been collected.
(3) The report shall specify all the steps which may have been taken with a view to preservation or otherwise.
Art. 38. – Action by public prosecutor on receiving report.
On receiving the report under Art. 37 the public prosecutor may:
A) Prosecute the accused on a charge drawn up by him under Art.109-122; or
B) Order that a preliminary inquiry be held under Art.80-93;or
C) Order further investigations; or
D) Refuse to institute proceedings under Art. 42
Art. 39. Closure of police investigation file
(1) The public prosecutor shall close the police investigation file where the accused:
(a) Has died ;or
(b) Is under nine years of age or
(c) Cannot be prosecuted under any special law or under public international law (diplomatic immunity)
(2) The provisions of art. 43-45 shall not apply where the case file is closed under this article.
(3) On closing the case file. The public prosecutor shall send a copy of his decision to the Advocate General. The private complainant, if any and the investigating police officer.
Chapter 3. Institution of Proceedings
Art. 40 Duty to institute proceedings
(1) Subject to the provisions of Art. 42 the public prosecutor shall institute proceedings accordance with the provisions of this Chapter whenever he is of opinion that there are sufficient grounds for prosecution the accused.
(2) The public prosecutor shall not institute proceedings against a young person unless instructed so to do by the court under Art. 172.
Art. 41 Doubtful cases.
Where it is not clear whether proceedings should be instituted, the public prosecutor shall refer the matter for instructions to the Advocate General.
Art 42. Cases where proceedings shall not be instituted
(1) No proceedings shall be instituted where:
(a) The public prosecutor is of opinion that there is not sufficient evidence to justify a conviction; or
(b) There is no possibility of finding the accused and the case is one which may not be tried in his absence; or
(c) The prosecution is barred by limitation or the offence is made the subject of a pardon or amnesty: or
(d) The public prosecutor is instructed not to institute proceedings in the public interest by the Minister by order under his hand.
(2) On no other grounds may the public prosecutor refuse to institute proceedings.
(3) The public prosecutor shall institute proceedings in cases affecting the Government when so instructed by the Minister.
Art. 44 Effect of refusal.
(1) Where the public prosecutor refuses to institute proceedings under Art. 42 (1)(a) in relation to an offence punishable on complaint only, he shall authorize in writing the appropriate person mentioned in Art.47 to conduct a private prosecution. A copy of such authorization shall be sent to the court having jurisdiction.
(2) Where the public prosecutor refuses to institute proceedings under Art. 42 (1) (a) in relation to an offence which is not punishable on complaint only, the appropriate person mentioned in art, 47 may, within thirty days from having received the decision of the public prosecutor apply for an order that the public prosecutor institute proceedings.
Art. 45 form of and decision an application
(1) An application under Art. 44(2) shall be made to the court to which an appeal lies from decisions of the court which would have had jurisdiction, had proceedings been instituted.
(2) The court shall, after considering the refusal of the public prosecutor to institute proceedings under Art.42(1) and the reasons therefor either confirm the decision of the public prosecutor or order him to institute proceedings ;
Art. 46 Liability of private prosecutor.
The private prosecutor authorized to conduct a private prosecution under art. 44(1) shall conduct the private prosecution at his peril and at his own expense.
Art. 47 Persons entitled to conduct private prosecutions.
No person other than:
(a) The injured party or his legal representative; or
(b) The husband or wife on behalf of the spouse; or
(c) The legal representative of an incapable person; or
(d) The attorney or a body corporate;
May conduct a private prosecution.
Art. 48 Stay of proceedings in private prosecution pending institution of proceedings by public prosecutor.
Where the evidence in a private prosecution discloses that a more serious offence has resulted than has been charged in a private prosecution, the public prosecutor may apply to the court to stay the proceedings pending the institution of fresh proceedings by the public prosecutor and the court shall thereon stay the proceedings
Section 1-
The hearing Art.123-Trial to be fixed.
When the charge has been filed under Art. 109, the court shall forthwith fix the date of trial and cause the accused and the public prosecutor to be summoned to appear on the date and at the time fixed by the court. It shall take such steps as are necessary to secure the attendance of the accused, if in custody.
Art.124-Witness summonses.
(1) So soon as the date of the trial has been fixed, the public prosecutor and the accused shall give the registrar a list of their witnesses and expert, if any, whose presence is necessary. The registrar shall forthwith issue summonses in the form prescribed in the Third Schedule to this Code.
(2) The public prosecutor and the accused shall be responsible for ensuring the all exhibits to be produced at the trial shall be in court on the day fixed for the trial.
Art.125-Bench warrant.
Where an accused person or a witness, who has been duly summoned and there is proof of service of such summons, has failed to appear as required, the court may issue a bench warrant and such accused person or witness shall be brought before the court be the police.
Art.126-Opening of hearing.
(1) The court shall sit on the day and at the hour fixed for the hearing.
(2) Where an interpreter is required for the purposes of any proceedings, the court shall select a qualified court interpreter. Where none is available it will select a court shall select a qualified court interpreter. Where none is available it will select a competent interpreter but no person shall be selected who is a relative to the accused or prosecutor or is himself a witness.
(3) The case shall be called and the accused shall be produced.
Art.127-Attendace of accused.
(1) The accused shall appear personally to be informed of the charge and to defend himself. When he is assisted by an advocate the advocate shall appear with him.
(2) The accused shall be adequately guarded and shall not be chained unless there are good reasons to believe that he is dangerous or may become violent or may try to escape.
Art.128-Verification of identity;
When the accused has been brought into the dock his identity, age and trade shall be established.
Asrt.129.-Reading out of charge.
The charge shall be read out to the accused by the presiding judge who shall then ask the accused if he has any objection to the charge.
Art.130-Objection to the charge.
(1) If the accused has anything to say as to the form or contents of the charge, the provisions of Art.119 et seq. shall apply.
(2) The provisions of Art. 131 shall apply where the accused states:
(a) That he the case is pending before another court; or
(b) That he has previously been acquitted or convicted on the same charge or
(c) That the charge against him has been barred by limitation or the offence with which he been charged has been made the subject of pardon or amnesty; or
(d) That he will be embarrassed in his defiance if he is not granted a suppurate trial, where he is tried with others; or
(e) That no permission to prosecute as required by law has been obtained; or
(f) That the decision in the criminal case against him cannot be given until other proceedings have been completed; or
(g) That he is not responsible for his acts.
(3)where no objects is raised under this Article immediately after the accused has been required by the court to state his objections, the accused shall be barred from raising any such objection at any later stage in the trial, unless objection be such as to prevent a valid judgment being given.
Art.131-Settlement of objections.
(1) The court shall take down any objection that may have been raised under Art.130 (2) and shall ask the prosecutor whether he has any statement to make in relation to such objection.
(2) The court shall decide forthwith on the objection where the objection can be disposed of by reference to the law or the facts on which the objective is based are not disputed by the prosecutor.
(3) Where a decision cannot be made forthwith owing to lack of evidence. The court shall order that the necessary evidence be submitted without delay.
(4) The court shall make its decision forthwith upon the necessary evidence having been produced.
Art.132-place of accused.
(1) After the charge has been read out and explained to the accused, the presiding judge shall ask the accused whether he pleads guilty or not guilty.
(2) Where there is more than one charge the presiding judge shall read out and explain each charge one by one and shall record the plea of the accused in respect of each charge separately.
(3) The plea of the accused shall be recorded as nearly as possible in the words of the accused.
Art.133-Plea of not guilty.
(1) Where the accused says nothing in answer to the charge or denies the charge, a plea of not guilty shall be entered.
(2) Where the accused admits the charge with reservations, the court shall enter a plea of not guilty.
Art.134-Plea of guilty.
(1) Where the accused admit without reservations every ingredient in the offence charged, the court shall enter a plea of guilty and may forthwith convict the accused.
(2) Where a plea of guilty has been entered, the curt may require the prosecution to call such evidence for the prosecution as it considers necessary and may permit the accused to call evidence.
Art.135-Amendment of plea.
(1) Where a plea of guilty has been entered and it appears to the court in the course of proceedings that a plea of not guilty should have been entered, the court may change the plea to one of not guilty.
(2) The conviction, if any, shall then be set aside.
Section 2-Evidence and judgment
Art.136- opening of case of calling of witnesses for prosecution.
(1) After the plea of the accused has been entered, the public prosecutor shall open his case explaining shortly the charges he proposes to prove and the nature of the evidence he will lead. He shall do so in an impartial and objective manner.
(2) The public prosecutor shall then call his witnesses and experts, if any. The witnesses and experts shall be sworn or affirmed before they give their testimony.
(3) They shall be examined in chief by the public prosecutor, cross-examined by the accused or his advocate and may be re-examined by the public prosecutor.
(4) The court may at any time put to a witness any question which appears necessary for the just decision of the case.
Art 137- Form of questions put in examination-in-chief.
(1) Questions put in examination-in chief shall only relate to facts which are relevant to the issues to be decided and to such facts only of which the witness has direct or indirect knowledge.
(2) No leading question shall be put to a witness without the permission of the accused or his advocate of the public prosecutor, as the case may be.
(3) Question put in cross-examination shall tend to show to the court what is erroneous, doubtful or untrue in the answers given in examination- in chief. Leading question may be to a witness in cross-examination.
Art.138-Atecedents accused.
(1) Unless otherwise expressly provided by law, the previous convictions of an accused person shall not be disclosed to the court until after he has been convicted.
(2) The previous convictions of an accused person shall not be included in the record of any preliminary inquiry.
Art.139-Re-examiniation.
The public prosecutor, the accused or his advocate may on re-examination only ask questions for the purpose of clarifying matters which have been raised in cross-examination.
Art.140- Absence of cross-examination.
Failure to cross-examine on a particular point does not constitute an admission of the truth of the point by the opposite party.
Art.141- Acquittal of accused when no case for prosecution.
When the case for the prosecution is concluded, the court, if it finds that no case against the accused has been made out which, if unrebutted, would warrant his conviction, shall record an order of acquittal.
Art.142-Opening of case for defence.
(1) Where the court finds the t a case against the accused has been made out and the witnesses for the injured party, if any, have been heard it shall call on the accused to enter upon his defence and shall inform him that he may make a statement in answer to the charge and may call witnesses in his defence.
(2) The accused or his advocate may open his case and shortly explain his defence stating the evidence he proposes to put forward. He shall then call his witnesses and expert, if any, who shall be worn or affirmed before they give their testimony.
(3) The witnesses for the defense may be called in any order,
Provided that, where the accused wishes to make a statement, he shall speak first.
The accused may not be cross-examined on his statement but the court may put questions to him for the purpose of clarifying any part of his statement.
Art.143-Additional witnesses.
(1) The court may at any time before giving judgment call any witness whose testimony it thinks is necessary in the interests of justice.
(2) The prosecution and the accused may call any witness whose name does not appear on the list of witnesses. Such witness shall be summoned where the court is satisfied that he is a material witness and the application for a summons is not being made for the purpose of delaying the case.
(3) The prosecutor may in a case committed for trial to the High Court call any witness who has not given evidence at the preliminary inquiry where he informs the accused in writing of the name of the witness he proposes to call and of the nature of the testimony he will give.
Art.144-Depositions taken in preliminary inquire may be put in evidence.
(1) The deposition of a witness taken at a preliminary inquiry may be read and put in evidence before the High Court where the witness is dead or insane, cannot be found, is so ill as not to be able to attend the trial or is absent from the Empire.
(2) The deposition of an expert taken at a preliminary inquiry may be read and put in evidence before the High Court although he is not called as a witness.
Art.145-Statements made in police investigation may be put in evidence.
(1) The court may, on the request of the accused or the prosecutor, refer to statement made by a witness to a police officer in the curse of police investigation.
(2) In may then, if it thinks it expedient in the interests of justice, direct the accused to be furnished with a copy thereof and such statement may be used to impeach the credit of such witness.
Art-146-objection to evidence.
Where the prosecutor the accused objects to the admission of any evidence or the putting of a question to a witness, the court shall decide forthwith on the admissibility of such evidence.
Art-147-Recording of evidence
(1) The evidence of every witness shall start with his name, address, occupation and age an indication that he has been sworn or affirmed.
(2) The evidence of each witness shall be taken down in writing by the presiding judge or, if, for some reason, he is unable to record the evidence, by another judge or clerk under his personal direction and superintendence.
(3) The evidence shall be divided into evidence –in chief, cross-examination and re-examination with a not as to where the cross-examination and re-examination begin and end.
(4) The evidence shall ordinarily be taken down in the form of a narrative.
Provided that the presiding judge may, in his direction, take down or cause to be taken down any particular question and answer.
Art.148-Final addresses.
(1) After the evidence for the defence has been concluded the prosecutor may address the court on questions of law and fact.
(2) The accused or his advocate shall then address the court on questions of law and fact. He shall always have the last word.
(3) Where there are more than one accused the presiding judge shall decide in which order the accused or their advocates shall address the court.
Art.149-judgmetn and sentence
(1) When the final addresses including the addresses under Art.156, if any, have been concluded, the court shall give judgment. The judgment shall be dated and signed by the judge delivering it. The judgment shall contain summary of the evidence, shall give reasons for accepting or rejecting evidence and shall contain the provisions of the law on which it is based and, in the case of a conviction, the article of the law under which the conviction is made.
(2) Where the accused is found not guilty, the judgment shall contain an order of acquittal and, where appropriate, an order that the accused be released from custody.
(3) Where the accused is found guilty, the court shall ask the prosecutor whether he has anything to say as regards sentence by way of aggravation or mitigation. The prosecutor may call witnesses as to the character of the accused.
(4) Where the prosecutor has made his submissions on sentence the accused or his advocate shall be entitled to reply and may call witnesses as to character. Where accused does not admit any fact regarding his antecedents, the prosecutor shall be required to prove the same.
(5) The court shall then pass sentence and shall record the articles of the law under which the sentence has been passed.
(6) Nothing herein contained shall affect the provisions of Art.195 and 196 Penal Code.
(7) After delivery of judgment the prosecutor and the accused shall be informed of their right of appeal.
Chapter 5-Private prosecution
Art.150-Filing complain and charge
(1) Where a private complainant has been authorized under Art. 44 (1) to conduct a private prosecution, he shall within fifteen days file his complaint and the charge in the court having jurisdiction.
(2) Where a charge is not in accordance with the authorization the court shall require the private complainant to amend the charge to confirm to such authorization.
Art.151-Attempt to reconcile the parties.
(1) When the complaint and the charge have been filed the court shall summon the complainant and the accused to appear.
(2) Before reading out the charge to the accused the court shall attempt to reconcile the parties. Where a reconciliation is effected, if shall be recorded by the court and shall have the effect of a judgment.
Art.152- Security for costs.
Where a reconciliation has not affected, the court shall decide whether the private prosecutor should give security for costs. Where an order for security is made, the sum to be secured and the nature of the security shall be stated in the order.
Art.153-Hearing and judgment.
(1) Where the private prosecutor has complied with the order, if any, under Art.152, the case shall proceed in accordance with Art.123-149, the parties having the same rights and duties as in public proceedings.
(2) The court shall give judgment as in ordinary cases.
Chapter 6-injured party in criminal proceedings
Art.154-principle
(1) Where a person has been injured by a criminal offence, he or his representative may at the opening of the hearing apply to the court trying the case for an order that compensation be awarded for the injury caused. The application shall be in writing and shall specify the nature and amount of the compensation sought. He shall not on filing his application pay the prescribed court fees us though it were a civil case.
(2) The person making the application shall be shown the list of the witness to be called by the prosecution and defiance and shall be asked whether he wishes additional witnesses to be called. Where he wishes additional witnesses to be called, he shall be required to pay the prescribed fees for the issue of witness summonses as though it were a civil case.
(3) The provisions of this chapter shall apply to public and private prosecutions
(4) Where the person making the application acts in the capacity of private prosecutor, he shall specify which witnesses he calls in support of the prosecution and which he calls in support of his civil claim. The provisions of sub-art. (1) and (2) shall apply.
Art.155-Application dismissed.
(1) The court shall consider the application and shall of its own motion or on the request of the prosecution or the defence refuse the application where.
(a) A young person is the accused; or
(b) The accused is being tried in his absence; or
(c) The injured party has instituted proceedings in a civil court having jurisdiction; or
(d) The person making the application is not qualified for suing; or
(e) The claim for compensation cannot be determined without calling numerous witnesses in addition to those to be called by the prosecution and defiance; or
(f) The court is of opinion that the hearing of the injured party’s claim for compensation is likely to confuse, complicate or delay the hearing of the criminal case.
(2)The application shall be dismissed where the amount of compensation claimed exceeds the pecuniary jurisdiction of the court.
(3) where the court dismisses the application its decision shall be final and no appeal shall lie against it. The injured party shall be informed by the court that he may file a claim against the accused in a civil court.
Art.156- Application allowed.
(1) Where the application is allowed the injured party shall be entitled to take part in the proceedings and shall have with regard to evidence all the rights of an ordinary party.
(2) The court shall at the close of the case for the defence permit the injured party or his representative to address the court in person or by advocate on the question of the amount of compensation to be awarded. The accused of his advocate shall have the right to reply.
Art.157-injured party may withdraw.
An injured party may at any time before the close of the case for the defence withdraw his application and thereupon he may file a claim against the accused in the civil court having jurisdiction.
Procedure incases Concerning Young Persons
Art.171- Principle.
Criminal case concerning young persons shall be tried in accordance with the provisions of the Chapter.
Art.172-institution of proceedings.
(1) In any case where a young person is involved. He shall be taken immediately before the nearest Woreda Court by the police, the public prosecutor, the parent or guardian or the complainant.
(2) The court shall ask the person bringing the young person to state the particulars and the witnesses, if any, of the alleged offence or to make a formal complaint, where appropriate, and such statement or complaint shall be recorded . The court may give the police instructions as to the manner in which investigations should be made.
(3) Where the accusation relates to an office punished with rigorous imprisonment exceeding ten years or with death (Art.173 penal Code) the court shall direct the public prosecutor to frame a charge.
(4) Where the case requires to be adjourned or to be transferred to a superior court for trial, the young person shall be handed over to the care of his parents, guardian or relative and in default of any such person to a reliable person who shall be responsible for ensuring his attendance at the trial The witnesses shall be bound over to appear at the trial.
Art.173-Summunig of young person’s guardian.
Where the young person is brought before the court and his parent, guardian or other person in loco parentis is not present, the court shall immediately inquire whether such person exists and shall summon such person to appear without delay.
Art.174-Young person may be assisted by counsel.
The court shall appoint an advocate to assist the young person where;
(a) No parent, guardian or other person in loco parentis appears to represent the young person, or
(b) The young person is young is charged with an offence punishable; with rigorous imprisonment exceeding ten years or with death.
Art.175-Removal of young person from chambers.
Where any evidence or comments are to be given or made which it is undesirable that the young person should hear, he shall be removed from the chambers while such evidence or comments are being given or made.
Art.176-Hearing
(1) Where the young person is brought before the court all the proceedings shall be held in chambers. Nobody shall be present at any hearing except witnesses, experts, the parent or guardian or representatives of welfare organizations. The public prosecutor shall be present at any hearing in the High Court.
(2) All proceedings shall be conducted in an informal manner.
(3) The accusation or complain under Art.172 (2) or the charge under Art.172(3) shall be read out to the young person and he shall be asked what he has to say in answer to such accusation or charge.
(4) If it is clear to the court from what the accused says that he fully understands and does not admits the accusation or charge, the court shall record what the young person has said and may convict him immediately.
(5) If it is clear to the court from what the accused says that he fully understands and does not admit the accusation or charge, the court shall inquire as to what witnesses should be called to support such accusation or charge. The young person, his representative or advocate may cause any witnesses to be summoned.
(6) All witnesses shall be examined by the court and may thereupon be cross examined by the defence. All depositions shall be recorded.
(7) When the evidence is concluded, the defence may sum up and there—after the court shall give judgment.
Art.177-Judgment.
(1) The judgment shall specify the provisions of the law on which it is based. Where the young person is found not guilty, he shall be acquitted and set free forthwith. Where he is found guilty, the court shall impose the appropriate measure or penalty under Art.162. et seq. Penal Code.
(2) The court may call before it any person or representative of any institution with a view to obtaining information concerning the character and antecedents of the young person so as to arrive at a decision which is in the best interest of the young person.
(3) After these persons have been heard, the defence may reply and call his witnesses as to character, who shall be interrogated by the court and thereupon the defence shall address the court as to sentence.
(4) Judgment shall be given as in ordinary cases. The court shall explain its decision to the young person and warm him against further misconduct.
Asdrt.178-Order which may be made against parents and guardians.
Where it thinks fit the court may warn, admonish or blame the parents or other person legally responsible for the young person where it appears that they have failed to carry their duties.
Art.179-Cost of upkeep of young person in certain circumstances.
(1) The parents or other person legally responsible for the care of a young person may be ordered to bear all or part of the cost of his upkeep and training where owing to their failure to exercise proper care and guardian ship the court has ordered the young person to be sent to the care of another person or to a corrective or curative institution.
(2) The scope and duration of such obligation shall be specified in the judgment.
Art.180-Variation or modification of order made in respect of young person.
Any court which has sentenced a young person to a measure may at any time of its own motion or on the application of the young person, his legal representative or the person or institution to which he was entrusted, vary or modify such order if the interest of the young person so requires.
Procedure in Case of Default
Art 160-Principle.
(1) The provisions of this Chapter shall apply where the accused fails to appear whether the prosecution is public or private but shall not apply to young offenders.
(2) Where the accused does not appear on the date fixed for the trail and no representative appears satisfactorily to explain his absence, the court shall issue a warrant for his arrest.
(3) Where the warrant cannot be executed, the court shall consider trying the accused in his absence. Where an order to this effect is made the provisions of the following articles shall apply.
Section 1-Failure to appear in public proceedings
Art.161- Conditions for trying accused person in his absence.
(1) Where the accused fails without good cause to appear on the day fixed for the bearing, the court shall record his absence and may direct that he be tried in his absence in accordance with provisions of this Section.
(2) No accused person may be tried in his absence under the provisions of this Section unless he is charged with;
(a) An offence punishable with rigorous imprisonment for not less than twelve years: or
(b) An offence under Art.354-365 penal Code punishable with rigorous imprisonment or fine exceeding five thousand dollars.
Art.162- Publication of summons.
Where the court decides to hear the case in the absence of the accused it shall order the publication of the summons which shall show the date fixed for the hearing. It shall contain a notification to the accused that he will be tried in his absence if he fails to appear.
Art.163. Hearing and judgment.
(1) Where the accused fails to appear after publication of the summons in accordance with Art.162 the case shall continue as in ordinary cases.
(2) The prosecution witnesses shall then be heard and the public prosecutor shall make his final submission.
(3) The court shall give judgment as in ordinary cases.
Art.164- Setting aside of judgment.
An application to set aside the judgment may be made on the conditions laid down in Art.197-202.
Procedure in Cases of Petty Offences
Art.167-Summoning of accused.
(1) Where a petty offence has been committed, the public or private prosecutor shall apply to the court having jurisdiction to summon the accused to appear.
(2) The application and the summons shall contain the name of the accused, the circumstances of the petty offence committed and the law and articles of the law to be applied.
Art.168-Accused may plead guilty in writing to petty offence.
The accused may return the summons to the court endorsing thereon that he pleads guilty to such offence. Such endorsement shall be dated and signed by the accused. In such a case and without prejudice to the provisions of Art.189 (3), he shall be dispensed with the necessity of appearing in court in answer to the summons.
Art.169- Proceedings and judgment.
(1) On receipt of the summons so endured, the court shall record the plea of guilty and, having ascertained the facts of the case from the prosecutor, shall sentence the accused and send him a copy of the judgment.
(2) Where the court proposed to impose a fine only, it shall do so forth with
(3) Where the court intends to impose a sentence of arrest, compulsory labor, a warning or reproof, it shall summon the accused to appear and shall give the accused an opportunity to defend himself before sentence is passed.
Art.170-procedure where accused appears before the court charge with petty offence.
(1) Where the accused does not endorse on the summons that he pleads guilty, he shall appear on the day and at the time fixed for the hearing.
(2) The prosecutor and the accused shall take such steps as are necessary to secure the attendance of their witnesses, if any.
(3) The procedure shall be oral. The court shall only record the salient part of the evidence of each witness. It shall give judgment orally recording briefly the reasons for its judgment and mentioning the provisions of the law under which judgment is given.
(4) Where the accused fails without good cause to appear in private proceedings the court shall give judgment forthwith.
Failure to appear in private proceedings
Art.165-Absence of private prosecutor.
(1) Where the private prosecutor fails without good cause to appear on the date fixed for the hearing, the court shall strike out the case and order the discharge of the accused.
(2) Where a case has been struck out under sub-art (1), the private prosecutor may, within fifteen days of such striking out, apply to the court to have a fresh hearing date fixed. No application shall be granted unless the private prosecutor satisfies the court that his failure to attend on the day of the hearing was due to causes beyond his control.
(3) Where no application is made within fifteen days or it is dismissed, the striking out shall be final with regard to the private prosecutor.
Art.166-Absece of accused.
Where the accused is absent, the provisions of Art. 162 and 163 shall not apply and a bench warrant shall be issued.
Preliminary Inquiry and Committal for Trial
Art.80.—Principle.
(1) Where any person is accused of an offence under Art. 522 (homicide in the first degree) or Art. 637 (aggravated robbery) a preliminary inquiry shall be held under the provisions of this Book.
Provided that nothing in this Article shall prevent the High Court from dispending with the holding of a preliminary inquiry where it is satisfied by the public prosecutor that the trial can be held immediately.
(2) Where any person is accused of any other offence triable only by the High Court no preliminary inquiry shall be held unless the public prosecutor under Art. 38 (b) so directs.
(3) The provisions of this Book shall not apply to offences coming within the jurisdiction of the High Court which have been committed by young persons.
Art.81.—Court having jurisdiction.
(1) Without prejudice to the provisions of Art. 99-107, the preliminary shall be held before the Woreda Guezat Court within whose area of jurisdiction the offence was committed.
Art.82.—Procedure.
(1) All preliminary inquiries shall be held in the manner provided by the following Articles.
(2) An adjournment may be granted on the conditions laid down in Art. 94.
Art.83.—Opening of preliminary inquiry.
(1) Where the public prosecutor decides under Art. 80 (2) that a preliminary inquiry shall be held, he shall send a copy of his decision to the Woreda Guezat Court having jurisdiction and, where appropriate, to the public prosecutor acting before such court.
(2) The court shall fix the day on which the inquiry shall be held and cause to be summoned such witnesses as the prosecutor may wish to call in support of the prosecution.
(3) The case for the prosecution shall be conducted by the public prosecutor acting before the committing court.
Art.84.—Taking evidence for prosecution.
(1) Where the accused person appears or is brought before it, the court shall require the prosecutor to open his case and to call his witnesses.
Art.85.—Accused asked whether he wishes to make a statement.
(1) After the witnesses for the prosecution have been heard and their evidence recorded, the court shall ask the accused whether he wishes to make a statement in answer to the charge.
(2) He shall be informed that the preliminary inquiry does not constitute a trial and that the decision as to his guilt or innocence will be taken by the High Court and not by the committing court.
(3) He shall be informed that he is not bound to say anything but that any statement he may wish to make will be taken down in writing and may be put in at his trial.
Art.86.—Statement of accused.
(1) If the accused elects to make no statement, he shall forthwith be committed for trial before the High Court.
(2) If the accused elects to make a statement, such statement shall be taken down in writing, read over to him, signed by the accused and kept in the file.
Art.87.—Additional witnesses.
The court may at any time call any witness whose testimony it thinks necessary in the interests of justice, notwithstanding that the prosecutor has not applied for such witness to be summoned.
Art.88.—Recording of evidence.
Evidence shall be recorded in accordance with Art. 147 and the evidence of each witness shall be recorded on separate sheets of paper.
Art.89.—Committal for trial.
(1) After the statement, if any, of the accused has been taken down, the court shall commit the accused for trial before the High Court without specifying the charge or charges on which he is committed for trial.
(2) Such charge or charges shall be specified in the charge framed by the public prosecutor in accordance with Art. 109-122 of this Code.
(3) The court shall then require the accused to give a list of the witnesses he wishes to call at his trial together with their addresses.
Art.90.—Bond of witnesses.
(1) All witnesses who have given evidence at the preliminary inquiry shall execute before the committing court bonds binding themselves to be in attendance before such court and on such date as they shall be summoned to appear.
(2) Any witness who refuses to execute the bond may be kept in custody until the trial or until he binds himself.
Art.91.—Record to be forwarded to registrar.
(1) When the accused is committed for trial, the committing court shall send the original record and the exhibits (if any) to the registrar of the High Court. Any exhibit which from its bulk or otherwise cannot conveniently be forwarded to the registrar of the High Court may remain in the custody of the police.
(2) A list of all exhibits showing which of them are forwarded with the record and which remain in the custody of the police shall be sent to the registrar of the High Court with the record.
(3) The registrar of the High Court shall be responsible for making copies of the record and sending one to the public prosecutor and one to the accused.
Art.92.—Contents of record.
(1) The record shall contain the following particulars:-
(a) The serial number of the case; and
(b) The date of the commission of the offence; and
(c) The date of the accusation, if any; and
(d) The name and address of the accuser, if any; and
(e) The name, address occupation and age, if known, and nationality of the accused; and
(f) The offence shown and, where appropriation, the value of the property in respect of which or the special status of the person against whom the offence was committed; and
(g) The date of the warrant of arrest, if any, or on which the accused was first arrested; and
(h) The date on which the accused was first brought before a court; and
(i) The name of the prosecutor and, where appropriate, of the advocate for the defense; and
(j) The date of and reasons for any adjournment that may have been granted; and
(k) The date on which the preliminary inquiry was completed; and
(l) All statements made in the course of the preliminary inquiry, including those which may have been made by the accused; and
(m) the list of defense witnesses.
(2) The same particulars shall appear in the copy of the proceedings sent to the public prosecutor and the accused.
Art.93.—Accused may be remanded.
Without prejudice to the provisions of this Code relating to release on ball the committing court may order that the accused be kept on remand until the trial.
Costs in Criminal Cases
Art.220. – Costs of public prosecution.
(1) All the costs of public prosecutions, including appeals, shall be borne by the government.
(2) Where exceptional costs have been incurred by the prosecution for a reason attributable to the convicted person and he is a person of property, the court may, in addition to any other lawful punishment, order him to pay the whole or any of the costs incurred by the prosecution as taxed by the registrar of the court.
(3) Where a public prosecution has been instituted in respect of an offence. punishable on complaint and the injured party withdraws his complaint (Art. 221 Penal Code), he shall be liable for all the costs of the prosecution.
Art.221. – Costs of private prosecution.
(1) The costs of private prosecution shall be borne by the private prosecutor in accordance with Art. 46.
(2) Where in a private prosecution the accused is acquitted and the court is on opinion that the charge was not made in good faith, it may order the private prosecutor to pay the whole or any part of the costs incurred by the accused.
(3) Where a private prosecution is stayed as provided in Art. 48, all the costs of the private prosecution shall be borne by the government.
Art.222. – Injured party.
(1) Where the injured party claims compensation in a criminal case, he shall pay:
(a) the court fees on the sum claimed as though it were a civil case; and
(b) the costs of summoning witnesses and calling experts.
(2) Where the injured party succeeds in his claim, the court shall order the accused to pay the court fees and costs mentioned in sub-art. (1).
Scholar Exchange: Foundations of American Democracy (Middle School Level) https://flip.it/ccC4cW
Defendant—— “I request that the Honorable Court appoint another lawyer”
Judge —— “What is your reason?”
Defendant—— “This defense attorney ignored my case”
Judge —— turned to the defense and said, “Uh! Do you have anything to complain about? ”
Defendant —— “😱 !? Lawyer _____What did they tell me? I’m sorry, my lord, I was not listening ”
የአስተዳደር ህግ እና የሰብዓዊ መብት አፈፃፀምተደጋግሞ እንደተገለፀው የመንግስት ስልጣን በወርድም በቁመትም እየሰፋ በመጣ ቁጥር ለዜጐች መብትና ነፃነት ፀር ነው፡፡ የአስተዳደር ህግ የስልጣንን አስፈላጊነት አምኖ ተቀብሎታል፡፡ ውጤታማ አስተዳደር እንዲሁም ቀልጣፋ የአገልግሎት አቅርቦት እንዲኖር የሚያስር ሳይሆን የሚፈታ ስልጣን ያስፈልጋል፡፡ ሆኖም ከህግና ከህገ መንግስት የሚያፈነግጥ ስልጣን ከጥቅሙ ጉዳቱ ያመዝናል፡፡ የበዘፈቀደ ድርጊት፣ ‘እንደፈለግኩኝ እሆናለው እፈልጣለው እቆርጣለው!’ የሚል አካሄድ አቅመ ቢስ የሆነውን ዜጋ የመኖር፣ በነፃነት የመንቀሳቀስ፣ የመናገር፣ ሀሳብን የመግለፅና ንብረት የማፍራት መሰረታዊ መብት አለገደብ ይሸረሽራል፡፡የአስተዳደር ህግ የሰብዓዊ መብትን በማስጠበቅ ረገድ ያለው ሚና የሁለቱን ትስስር በሚገባ ያሳየናል፡፡ ህጉ በሰብዓዊ መብት አጠባበቅና አፈፃፀም ላይ ያለውን አዎንታዊ ተፅእኖ በሚገባ ለመረዳት ከሰብዓዊ መብቶች አተገባበር አንፃር የመንግስትን ግዴታ መተንተኑ አግባብነት ይኖረዋል፡፡ እነዚህም ሚናዎች (ግዴታዎች) የማክበር (respect) የማስከበር (protect) እንዲሁም የመፈጸምና የማስፈፀም (enforcement) ናቸው፡፡በመጀመሪያው መብቶችን የማክበር የመንግስት ሚና ዜጐች ነፃ ሆነው መብታቸውን ሲጠቀሙ ከየትኛውም የመንግስት አካል የሚመጣ ጣልቃ ገብነትን ይገድባል፡፡ በተለይም መሰረታዊ በሚባሉት በህይወት የመኖር፣ የመፃፍ፣ የመናገር፤ የፈለጉትን ሀይማኖት የመከተል፤ በነፃነት የመዘዋወርና ንብረት የማፍራት መብቶችና ነፃነቶች በተግባር የሚረጋገጡት መንግስት እጁን ሲሰበስብ ነው፡፡ እነዚህ መብቶች በመንግስት በተለይ በስራ አስፈፃሚውና በስሩ ባሉት የአስተዳደር ተቋማት ውሳኔ፤ ትዕዛዝ፤ ደንብና መመሪያ አማካይነት አደጋ ላይ ሊወድቁ ይችላሉ፡፡ ህገ መንግስቱ የበላይ ህግ እንደመሆኑ ይህን የሚቃረን ህግ፣ ውሳኔና አሰራር ሁሉ ተፈፃሚነት አይኖረውም፡፡ ይህን መሰሉ የህገ መንግስታዊነት ጥያቄ በአስተዳደር ህግ ውስጥ አይወድቅም፡፡ ይሁን እንጂ የህገ መንግስታዊነት ብቻ የሚመስል ጥያቄ በአስተዳደር ህግ ማእቀፍ የሚሸፈንበት አጋጣሚ ሰፊ ነው፡፡በአንድ የአስተዳደር ተቋም የወጣ መመሪያ በህግ አውጭው ከተሰጠ የውክልና ስልጣን በማለፍ የዜጐችን ሰብዓዊ መብት የሚገድብ ሆኖ ከተገኘ በውስጡ የህገ መንግስታዊነት (constitutionality) ጥያቄ ያዘለ ቢሆንም በዋናነት ግን የአስተዳደር ህግ ሊመልሰው የሚገባ የህጋዊነት (legality) ጥያቄ ነው፡፡ ልዩነታቸውን የበለጠ መረዳት እንዲያስችልን የሚከተለውን የድሮው የገቢዎች ሚኒስቴር የአሁኑ የገቢዎችና ጉምሩክ ባለስልጣን መመሪያ እንመልከት፡፡ማንኛውም የጉምሩክ ፖሊስ ሰላማዊ ስልፍና የስራ ማቆም አድማ ማድረግ አይችልም፡፡ሰላማዊ ሰልፍ የማድረግ መብት በኢ.ፌ.ዲ.ሪ ህገ መንግስት ለማንኛውም ሰው የተረጋገጠ መብት ነው፡፡ መብቱን የሚያጎናጽፈው የአንቀጽ 30 ንዑስ ቁጥር 1 እንዲህ ይነበባል፡፡ማንኛውም ሰው ከሌሎች ጋር በመሆን መሳሪያ ሳይዝ በሰላም የመሰብሰብ ሰላማዊ ሰልፍ የማድረግ ነፃነትና አቤቱታ የማቅረብ መብት አለው፡፡አንድ መመሪያ በስራ አስፈፃሚው አካል ሲወጣ ከህግ አውጭው በግልጽ የተሰጠ የውክልና ስልጣን (Delegation) ሊኖር ይገባል፡፡ መመሪያው የውክልና ስልጣኑን ገደብ ካለፈ ከስልጣን በላይ (Ulta vires) ነው፡፡ ስለሆነም በህግ ፊት ዋጋ አልባ (null and void) ነው፡፡ የገቢዎች ሚኒስቴር ይህን መመሪያ ሲያወጣ የስልጣን ምንጩን የጉምሩክ ባለስልጣንን ለማቋቋምና አስራሩን ለመወሰን የወጣው አዋጅ ቁ. 368/1995 አንቀጽ 8 (2) (ሐ) እንደሆነ ይጠቅሳል፡፡ ይህ የተጠቀሰው የህግ ድንጋጌ እንዲህ ይነበባል፡፡የጉምሩክ ህግ እንዲያስከብር ከፌደራል ፖሊስ ኮሚሽን የተመደበን የፖሊስ ኃይል ሚኒስቴሩ የፌደራል ፖሊስ አዋጅን ተከትሎ በሚያወጣውContinue reading “የአስተዳደር ህግ እና የሰብዓዊ መብት።”
የአስተዳደር ህግ እና የሰብዓዊ መብት። —
Essential Conditions of Marriage
Article 6. – Consent. A valid marriage shall take place only when the spouses have given their free and full consent. Article 7. – Age 1) Neither a man nor a woman who has not attained the full age of eighteen years shall conclude marriage. 2) Notwithstanding the provisions of Sub-Article (1) of this Article, the Minister of Justice may, on the application of the future spouses, or the parents or guardian of one of them, for serious cause, grant dispensation of not more than two years. Article 8. – Consanguinity. 1) Marriage between persons related by consanguinity in the direct line, between ascendants and descendants, is prohibited. 2) In the collateral line, a man cannot conclude marriage with his sister or aunt; similarly, a woman cannot conclude marriage with her brother or uncle. Article 9. – Affinity 1) Marriage between persons related by affinity in the direct line is prohibited. 2) In the collateral line, marriage between a man and the sister of his wife, and a woman and the brother of her husband is prohibited. Article 10. – Filiations not Established Legally. The existence of a bond of natural filiation which is commonly known to the community is sufficient to render applicable the impediments to marriage referred to in Articles 8 and 9, notwithstanding that the filiation is not legally established. Article 11. – Bigamy. A person shall not conclude marriage as long as he is bound by bonds of a preceding marriage. Article 12. – Representation not Allowed. 1) Each of the future spouses shall personally be present and consent to the marriage at the time and place of its celebration. 2) Notwithstanding the provisions of Sub-Art. (1) of this Article, marriage by representation may be allowed by the Ministry of Justice where it has ascertained that there is a serious cause and the person who intended to do so has fully consented thereto. Article 13. – Fundamental Error. 1) Marriage concluded as a result of error in consent shall not be valid. 2) Consent is deemed to be vitiated as a result of error where such error is a fundamental error. 3) Without prejudice to the provisions of Sub-Article (2) of this Article, the following shall be considered to be fundamental errors: (a) Error on the identity of the spouse, where it is not the person with whom a person intended to conclude marriage; (b) Error on the state of health of the spouse who is affected by a disease that does not heal or that can be genetically transmitted to descendants; (c) Error on the bodily conformation of the spouse who does not have the requisite sexual organs for the consummation of the marriage; (d) Error on the behavior of the spouse who has the habit of performing sexual acts with person of the same sex. Article 14. – Consent Extorted by Violence. 1) Marriage concluded as a result of consent which is extorted by violence shall be valid. 2) Consent is deemed to be extorted by violence where it is given by a spouse to protect himself or one of his ascendants or descendants, or any other close relative from a serious and imminent danger or threat of danger. Article 15. – Judicially Interdicted Persons. 1) Any person who is judicially interdicted shall not be conclude marriage unless authorized, for that purpose, by the court. 2) An application to this effect may be made by the interdicted person himself or by his guardian. Article 16. – Period of widowhood. 1) A woman may not remarry unless one hundred and eight days have elapsed since the dissolution of the previous marriage. 2) The provision of Sub-Article (1) of this Article shall not apply where: (a) The woman gives birth to a child after the dissolution of her marriage; (b) The woman remarries her former husband; (c) It is proved by medical evidence that the woman is not pregnant; (d) The court dispenses the woman from observing the period of widowhood.
Preliminary Inquiry and Committal for Trial
Art.80.—Principle.
(1) Where any person is accused of an offence under Art. 522 (homicide in the first degree) or Art. 637 (aggravated robbery) a preliminary inquiry shall be held under the provisions of this Book.
Provided that nothing in this Article shall prevent the High Court from dispending with the holding of a preliminary inquiry where it is satisfied by the public prosecutor that the trial can be held immediately.
(2) Where any person is accused of any other offence triable only by the High Court no preliminary inquiry shall be held unless the public prosecutor under Art. 38 (b) so directs.
(3) The provisions of this Book shall not apply to offences coming within the jurisdiction of the High Court which have been committed by young persons.
Art.81.—Court having jurisdiction.
(1) Without prejudice to the provisions of Art. 99-107, the preliminary shall be held before the Woreda Guezat Court within whose area of jurisdiction the offence was committed.
Art.82.—Procedure.
(1) All preliminary inquiries shall be held in the manner provided by the following Articles.
(2) An adjournment may be granted on the conditions laid down in Art. 94.
Art.83.—Opening of preliminary inquiry.
(1) Where the public prosecutor decides under Art. 80 (2) that a preliminary inquiry shall be held, he shall send a copy of his decision to the Woreda Guezat Court having jurisdiction and, where appropriate, to the public prosecutor acting before such court.
(2) The court shall fix the day on which the inquiry shall be held and cause to be summoned such witnesses as the prosecutor may wish to call in support of the prosecution.
(3) The case for the prosecution shall be conducted by the public prosecutor acting before the committing court.
Art.84.—Taking evidence for prosecution.
(1) Where the accused person appears or is brought before it, the court shall require the prosecutor to open his case and to call his witnesses.
Art.85.—Accused asked whether he wishes to make a statement.
(1) After the witnesses for the prosecution have been heard and their evidence recorded, the court shall ask the accused whether he wishes to make a statement in answer to the charge.
(2) He shall be informed that the preliminary inquiry does not constitute a trial and that the decision as to his guilt or innocence will be taken by the High Court and not by the committing court.
(3) He shall be informed that he is not bound to say anything but that any statement he may wish to make will be taken down in writing and may be put in at his trial.
Art.86.—Statement of accused.
(1) If the accused elects to make no statement, he shall forthwith be committed for trial before the High Court.
(2) If the accused elects to make a statement, such statement shall be taken down in writing, read over to him, signed by the accused and kept in the file.
Art.87.—Additional witnesses.
The court may at any time call any witness whose testimony it thinks necessary in the interests of justice, notwithstanding that the prosecutor has not applied for such witness to be summoned.
Art.88.—Recording of evidence.
Evidence shall be recorded in accordance with Art. 147 and the evidence of each witness shall be recorded on separate sheets of paper.
Art.89.—Committal for trial.
(1) After the statement, if any, of the accused has been taken down, the court shall commit the accused for trial before the High Court without specifying the charge or charges on which he is committed for trial.
(2) Such charge or charges shall be specified in the charge framed by the public prosecutor in accordance with Art. 109-122 of this Code.
(3) The court shall then require the accused to give a list of the witnesses he wishes to call at his trial together with their addresses.
Art.90.—Bond of witnesses.
(1) All witnesses who have given evidence at the preliminary inquiry shall execute before the committing court bonds binding themselves to be in attendance before such court and on such date as they shall be summoned to appear.
(2) Any witness who refuses to execute the bond may be kept in custody until the trial or until he binds himself.
Art.91.—Record to be forwarded to registrar.
(1) When the accused is committed for trial, the committing court shall send the original record and the exhibits (if any) to the registrar of the High Court. Any exhibit which from its bulk or otherwise cannot conveniently be forwarded to the registrar of the High Court may remain in the custody of the police.
(2) A list of all exhibits showing which of them are forwarded with the record and which remain in the custody of the police shall be sent to the registrar of the High Court with the record.
(3) The registrar of the High Court shall be responsible for making copies of the record and sending one to the public prosecutor and one to the accused.
Art.92.—Contents of record.
(1) The record shall contain the following particulars:-
(a) The serial number of the case; and
(b) The date of the commission of the offence; and
(c) The date of the accusation, if any; and
(d) The name and address of the accuser, if any; and
(e) The name, address occupation and age, if known, and nationality of the accused; and
(f) The offence shown and, where appropriation, the value of the property in respect of which or the special status of the person against whom the offence was committed; and
(g) The date of the warrant of arrest, if any, or on which the accused was first arrested; and
(h) The date on which the accused was first brought before a court; and
(i) The name of the prosecutor and, where appropriate, of the advocate for the defense; and
(j) The date of and reasons for any adjournment that may have been granted; and
(k) The date on which the preliminary inquiry was completed; and
(l) All statements made in the course of the preliminary inquiry, including those which may have been made by the accused; and
(m) the list of defense witnesses.
(2) The same particulars shall appear in the copy of the proceedings sent to the public prosecutor and the accused.
Art.93.—Accused may be remanded.
Without prejudice to the provisions of this Code relating to release on ball the committing court may order that the accused be kept on remand until the trial.
words pictures projects
The " WTM brings you new interesting and useful information and discussions on various national and international topics every day Our media The voice of the people of Tigray as well as the voices of all other ethnic groups, innocent and oppressed people of all ethnic groups who are being abused. https://tigraywoyenay.com/
International Independent Journalism
"Those whose minds are steeped in cannabis are capable of quite extraordinary criminality."
WELCOME TO JUDGMENT WEBSITE
Activism
Empower Tigray: Education, Health, Family
gadodare4533@gmail.com
oroorthodox.wordpress.com
http://gaaddisaoromiyaa.blogspot.com
@AbdisaAmin
Open Dialogue Research Journal
Macro and micro opinions on humans, their culture, politics and science
notizie dal Centro Astalli
Arts, Nature, Good Works, Luna & Stella Lockets & Birthstones
An in–depth Analysis of TB Joshua and SCOAN | Watchedtbjoshua.wordpress.com
Voice of Britain's Youth
Campbell looks at the Church and the world and wonders where it all went wrong
Critical analysis, news and commentaries
Reflections on the Culture of Politics & the Politics of Culture
"Once in a while you will stumble upon the truth but most of us manage to pick ourselves up and hurry along as if nothing had happened." -- Sir Winston Churchill
NEWS/ENTERTAINMENT/SPORTS/ARTICLES/FICTION/ADVERTORIAL/BEAUTY AND FASHION/THE QUINTESSENTIALS
-Chase the Stories
Sympathetic Reporting on the Middle East
Spontaneous thoughts on a humble creed
Not to impress but simply to express
Journalist specialising in the Horn of Africa and Southern Africa
MIFTAH KEDIR WEBSITES
The leading bulletin service on Africa
Wildlife welfare, environmental conservation and animal rights
Local tour company in Ethiopia
Love's the Only Engine of Survival
JUSTICE 
You must be logged in to post a comment.